Semiconductor integrated circuits typically include multiple levels of metallization to provide electrical connections between large numbers of active semiconductor devices. Advanced integrated circuits, particularly those for microprocessors, may include five or more metallization levels. In the past, aluminum has been the favored metallization, but copper has been developed as a metallization for advanced integrated circuits.
A typical metallization level is illustrated in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 1. A lower-level layer 110 includes a conductive feature 112. If the lower-level layer 110 is a lower-level dielectric layer, such as silica or other insulating material, the conductive feature 112 may be a lower-level copper metallization, and the vertical portion of the upper-level metallization is referred to as a via since it interconnects two levels of metallization. If the lower-level layer 110 is a silicon layer, the conductive feature 112 may a doped silicon region, and the vertical portion of the upper-level metallization formed in a hole is referred to as a contact because it electrically contacts silicon. An upper-level dielectric layer 114 is deposited over the lower-level dielectric layer 110 and the lower-level metallization 112. There are yet other shapes for the holes including lines and trenches. Also, in dual damascene and similar interconnect structures, as described below, the holes have a complex shape. In some applications, the hole may not extend through the dielectric layer. The following discussion will refer to only via holes, but in most circumstances the discussion applies equally well to other types of holes with only a few modifications well known in the art.
Conventionally, the dielectric is silicon oxide formed by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) using tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as the precursor. However, low-k materials of other compositions and deposition techniques are being considered. Some of the low-k dielectrics being developed can be characterized as silicates, such as fluorinated silicate glasses. Hereafter, only silicate (oxide) dielectrics will be directly described, but it is contemplated that other dielectric compositions may be used.
A via hole is etched into the upper-level dielectric layer 114 typically using, in the case of silicate dielectrics, a fluorine-based plasma etching process. In advanced integrated circuits, the via holes may have widths as low as 0.18 μm or even less. The thickness of the dielectric layer 114 is usually at least 0.7 μm, and sometimes twice this, so that the aspect ratio of the hole may be 4:1 or greater. Aspect ratios of 6:1 and greater are being proposed. Furthermore, in most circumstances, the via hole should have a vertical profile.
A liner layer 116 may be deposited onto the bottom and sides of the hole and above the dielectric layer 114. The liner 116 can perform several functions. It can act as an adhesion layer between the dielectric and the metal since metal films tend to peel from oxides. It can also act as a barrier against inter-diffusion between the oxide-based dielectric and the metal. It may also act as a seed and nucleation layer to promote the uniform adhesion and growth and possibly low-temperature reflow for the deposition of metal filling the hole and to nucleate the even growth of a separate seed layer. One or more liner layers may be deposited, in which one layer may function primarily as a barrier layer and others may function primarily as adhesion, seed or nucleation layers.
An interconnect layer 118 of a conductive metal such as copper, for example, is then deposited over the liner layer 116 to fill the hole and to cover the top of the dielectric layer 114. Conventional aluminum metallizations are patterned into horizontal interconnects by selective etching of the planar portion of the metal layer 118. However, a technique for copper metallization, called dual damascene, forms the hole in the dielectric layer 114 into two connected portions, the first being narrow vias through the bottom portion of the dielectric and the second being wider trenches in the surface portion which interconnect the vias. After the metal deposition, chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is performed which removes the relatively soft copper exposed above the dielectric oxide but which stops on the harder oxide. As a result, multiple copper-filled trenches of the upper level, similar to the conductive feature 112 of the next lower level, are isolated from each other. The copper filled trenches act as horizontal interconnects between the copper-filled vias. The combination of dual damascene and CMP eliminates the need to etch copper. Several layer structures and etching sequences have been developed for dual damascene, and other metallization structures have similar fabrication requirements.
Lining and filling via holes and similar high aspect-ratio structures, such as occur in dual damascene, have presented a continuing challenge as their aspect ratios continue to increase. Aspect ratios of 4:1 are common and the value will further increase. An aspect ratio as used herein is defined as the ratio of the depth of the hole to narrowest width of the hole, usually near its top surface. Via widths of 0.18 μm are also common and the value will further decrease. For advanced copper interconnects formed in oxide dielectrics, the formation of the barrier layer tends to be distinctly separate from the nucleation and seed layer. The diffusion barrier may be formed from a bilayer of Ta/TaN, W/WN, or Ti/TiN, or of other structures. Barrier thicknesses of 10 to 50 nm are typical. For copper interconnects, it has been found useful to deposit one or more copper layers to fulfill the nucleation and seed functions.
The deposition of the liner layer or the metallization by conventional physical vapor deposition (PVD), also called sputtering, is relatively fast. A DC magnetron sputtering reactor has a target which is composed of the metal to be sputter deposited and which is powered by a DC electrical source. The magnetron is scanned about the back of the target and projects its magnetic field into the portion of the reactor adjacent the target to increase the plasma density there to thereby increase the sputtering rate. However, conventional DC sputtering (which will be referred to as PVD in contrast to other types of sputtering to be introduced) predominantly sputters neutral atoms. The typical ion densities in PVD are often less than 109 cm−3. PVD also tends to sputter atoms into a wide angular distribution, typically having a cosine dependence about the target normal. Such a wide distribution can be disadvantageous for filling a deep and narrow via hole 122 such as that illustrated in FIG. 2, in which a barrier layer 124 has already been deposited. The large number of off-angle sputter particles can cause a layer 126 to preferentially deposit around the upper corners of the hole 122 and form overhangs 128. Large overhangs can further restrict entry into the hole 122 and cause inadequate coverage of the sidewalls 130 and bottom 132 of the hole 122. Also, the overhangs 128 can bridge the hole 122 before it is filled and create a void 134 in the metallization within the hole 122. Once a void 134 has formed, it is often difficult to reflow it out by heating the metallization to near its melting point. Even a small void can introduce reliability problems. If a second metallization deposition step is planned, such as by electroplating, the bridged overhang make subsequent deposition more difficult.
One approach to ameliorate the overhang problem is long-throw sputtering in which the sputtering target is spaced relatively far from the wafer or other substrate being sputter coated. For example, the target-to-wafer spacing can be at least 50% of wafer diameter, preferably more than 90%, and more preferably more than 140%. As a result, the off-angle portion of the sputtering distribution is preferentially directed to the chamber walls, but the central-angle portion remains directed substantially to the wafer. The truncated angular distribution can cause a higher fraction of the sputter particles to be directed deeply into the hole 122 and reduce the extent of the overhangs 128. A similar effect can be accomplished by positioning a collimator between the target and wafer. Because the collimator has a large number of holes of high aspect ratio, the off-angle sputter particles tend to strike the sidewalls of the collimator, and the central-angle particles tend to pass through. Both long-throw targets and collimators typically reduce the flux of sputter particles reaching the wafer and thus tend to reduce the sputter deposition rate. The reduction can become more pronounced as throws are lengthened or as collimation is tightened to accommodate via holes of increasing aspect ratios.
Also, the length that long throw sputtering may be increased may be limited. At the few milliTorr of argon pressure often used in PVD sputtering, there is a greater possibility of the argon scattering the sputtered particles as the target to wafer spacing increases. Hence, the geometric selection of the forward particles may be decreased. A yet further problem with both long throw and collimation is that the reduced metal flux can result in a longer deposition period which can not only reduce throughput, but also tends to increase the maximum temperature the wafer experiences during sputtering. Still further, long throw sputtering can reduce over hangs and provide good coverage in the middle and upper portions of the sidewalls, but the lower sidewall and bottom coverage can be less than satisfactory.
Another technique for deep hole lining and filling is sputtering using a high-density plasma (HDP) in a sputtering process called ionized metal plating (IMP). A typical high-density plasma is one having an average plasma density across the plasma, exclusive of the plasma sheaths, of at least 1011 cm−3, and preferably at least 1012 cm−3. In IMP deposition, a separate plasma source region is formed in a region away from the wafer, for example, by inductively coupling RF power into a plasma from an electrical coil wrapped around a plasma source region between the target and the wafer. The plasma generated in this fashion is referred to as an inductively coupled plasma (ICP). An HDP chamber having this configuration is commercially available from Applied Materials of Santa Clara, Calif. as the HDP PVD Reactor. Other HDP sputter reactors are available. The higher power ionizes not only the argon working gas, but also significantly increases the ionization fraction of the sputtered atoms, that is, produces metal ions. The wafer either self-charges to a negative potential or is RF biased to control its DC potential. The metal ions are accelerated across the plasma sheath as they approach the negatively biased wafer. As a result, their angular distribution becomes strongly peaked in the forward direction so that they are drawn deeply into the via hole. Overhangs become much less of a problem in IMP sputtering, and bottom coverage and bottom sidewall coverage are relatively high.
IMP sputtering using a remote plasma source is usually performed at a higher pressure such as 30 milliTorr or higher. The higher pressures and a high-density plasma can produce a very large number of argon ions, which are also accelerated across the plasma sheath to the surface being sputter deposited. The argon ion energy is often dissipated as heat directly into the film being formed. Copper can dewet from tantalum nitride and other barrier materials at elevated temperatures experienced in IMP, even at temperatures as low at 50 to 75 C. Further, the argon tends to become embedded in the developing film. IMP can deposit a copper film as illustrated at 136 in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 3, having a surface morphology that is rough or discontinuous. If so, such a film may not promote hole filling, particularly when the liner is being used as the electrode for electroplating.
Another technique for depositing metals is sustained self-sputtering (SSS), as is described by Fu et al. in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/854,008, filed May 8, 1997 and by Fu in U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,614 B1, Ser. No. 09/373,097, filed Aug. 12, 1999, incorporated by reference in their entireties. For example, at a sufficiently high plasma density adjacent a copper target, a sufficiently high density of copper ions develops that the copper ions will resputter the copper target with yield over unity. The supply of argon working gas can then be eliminated or at least reduced to a very low pressure while the copper plasma persists. Aluminum is believed to be not readily susceptible to SSS. Some other materials, such as Pd, Pt, Ag, and Au can also undergo SSS.
Depositing copper or other metals by sustained self-sputtering of copper has a number of advantages. The sputtering rate in SSS tends to be high. There is a high fraction of copper ions which can be accelerated across the plasma sheath and toward a biased wafer, thus increasing the directionality of the sputter flux. Chamber pressures may be made very low, often limited by leakage of backside cooling gas, thereby reducing wafer heating from the argon ions and decreasing scattering of the metal particles by the argon.
Techniques and reactor structures have been developed to promote sustained self-sputtering. It has been observed that some sputter materials not subject to SSS because of sub-unity resputter yields nonetheless benefit from these same techniques and structures, presumably because of partial self-sputtering, which results in a partial self-ionized plasma (SIP). Furthermore, it is often advantageous to sputter copper with a low but finite argon pressure even though SSS without any argon working gas is achievable. Hence, SIP sputtering is the preferred terminology for the more generic sputtering process involving a reduced or zero pressure of working gas so that SSS is a type of SIP. SIP sputtering has also been described by Fu et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,825 and by Chiang et al. in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/414,614, filed Oct. 8, 1999, both incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.
SIP sputtering uses a variety of modifications to a fairly conventional capacitively coupled magnetron sputter reactor to generate a high-density plasma (HDP) adjacent to the target and to extend the plasma and guide the metal ions toward the wafer. Relatively high amounts of DC power are applied to the target, for example, 20 to 40 kW for a chamber designed for 200 mm wafers. Furthermore, the magnetron has a relatively small area so that the target power is concentrated in the smaller area of the magnetron, thus increasing the power density supplied to the HDP region adjacent the magnetron. The small-area magnetron is disposed to a side of a center of the target and is rotated about the center to provide more uniform sputtering and deposition.
In one type of SIP sputtering, the magnetron has unbalanced poles, usually a strong outer pole of one magnetic polarity surrounding a weaker inner pole of the other polarity. The magnetic field lines emanating from the stronger pole may be decomposed into not only a conventional horizontal magnetic field adjacent the target face but also a vertical magnetic field extending toward the wafer. The vertical field lines extend the plasma closer toward the wafer and also guide the metal ions toward the wafer. Furthermore, the vertical magnetic lines close to the chamber walls act to block the diffusion of electrons from the plasma to the grounded shields. The reduced electron loss is particularly effective at increasing the plasma density and extending the plasma across the processing space.
SIP sputtering may be accomplished without the use of RF inductive coils. The small HDP region is sufficient to ionize a substantial fraction of metal ions, estimated to be between 10 and 25%, which effectively sputter coats into deep holes. Particularly at the high ionization fraction, the ionized sputtered metal atoms are attracted back to the targets and sputter yet further metal atoms. As a result, the argon working pressure may be reduced without the plasma collapsing. Therefore, argon heating of the wafer is less of a problem, and there is reduced likelihood of the metal ions colliding with argon atoms, which would both reduce the ion density and randomize the metal ion sputtering pattern.
A further advantage of the unbalanced magnetron used in SIP sputtering is that the magnetic field from the stronger, outer annular pole projects far into the plasma processing area towards the wafer. This projecting field has the advantage of supporting a strong plasma over a larger extent of the plasma processing area and to guide ionized sputter particles towards the wafer. Wei Wang in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/612,861 filed Jul. 10, 2000 discloses the use of a coaxial electromagnetic coil wrapped around the major portion of the plasma process region to create a magnetic field component extending from the target to the wafer. The magnetic coil is particularly effective in combining SIP sputtering in a long-throw sputter reactor, that is, one having a larger spacing between the target and the wafer because the auxiliary magnetic field supports the plasma and further guides the ionized sputter particles. Lai discloses in U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,551 a smaller coil in near the target.
However, SIP sputtering could still be improved. One of its fundamental problems is the limited number of variables available in optimizing the magnetic field configuration. The magnetron should be small in order to maximize the target power density, but the target needs to be uniformly sputtered. The magnetic field should have a strong horizontal component adjacent the target to maximize the electron trapping there. Some component of the magnetic field should project from the target towards the wafer to guide the ionized sputter particles. The coaxial magnetic coil of Wang addresses only some of these problems. The horizontally arranged permanent magnets disclosed by Lai in U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,551 poorly address this effect.
Metal may also be deposited by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using metallo-organic precursors, such as Cu-HFAC-VTMS, commercially available from Schumacher in a proprietary blend with additional additives under the trade name CupraSelect. A thermal CVD process may be used with this precursor, as is very well known in the art, but plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD) is also possible. The CVD process is capable of depositing a nearly conformal film even in the high aspect-ratio holes. For example, a film may be deposited by CVD as a thin seed layer, and then PVD or other techniques may be used for final hole filling. However, CVD copper seed layers have often been observed to be rough. The roughness can detract from its use as a seed layer and more particularly as a reflow layer promoting the low temperature reflow of after deposited copper deep into hole. Also, the roughness indicates that a relatively thick CVD copper layer of the order of 50 nm may be needed to reliably coat a continuous seed layer. For the narrower via holes now being considered, a CVD copper seed layer of a certain thickness may nearly fill the hole. However, complete fills performed by CVD can suffer from center seams, which may impact device reliability.
Another, combination technique uses IMP sputtering to deposit a thin copper nucleation layer, sometimes referred to as a flash deposition, and a thicker CVD copper seed layer is deposited on the IMP layer. However, as was illustrated in FIG. 3, the IMP layer 136 can be rough, and the CVD layer tends to conformally follow the roughened substrate. Hence, the CVD layer over an IMP layer will also tend to be rough.
Electrochemical plating (ECP) is yet another copper deposition technique that is being developed. In this method, the wafer is immersed in a copper electrolytic bath. The wafer is electrically biased with respect to the bath, and copper electrochemically deposits on the wafer in a generally conformal process. Electroless plating techniques are also available. Electroplating and its related processes are advantageous because they can be performed with simple equipment at atmospheric pressure, the deposition rates are high, and the liquid processing is consistent with the subsequent chemical mechanical polishing.
Electroplating, however, imposes its own requirements. A seed and adhesion layer is usually provided on top of the barrier layer, such as of Ta/TaN, to nucleate the electroplated copper and adhere it to the barrier material. Furthermore, the generally insulating structure surrounding the via hole 122 requires that an electroplating electrode be formed between the dielectric layer 114 and the via hole 122. Tantalum and other barrier materials are typically relatively poor electrical conductors, and the usual nitride sublayer of the barrier layer 124 which faces the via hole 122 (containing the copper electrolyte) is even less conductive for the long transverse current paths needed in electroplating. Hence, a good conductive seed and adhesion layer are often deposited to facilitate the electroplating effectively filling the bottom of the via hole.
A copper seed layer deposited over the barrier layer 124 is typically used as the electroplating electrode. However, a continuous, smooth, and uniform film is preferred. Otherwise, the electroplating current will be directed only to the areas covered with copper or be preferentially directed to areas covered with thicker copper. Depositing the copper seed layer presents its own difficulties. An IMP deposited seed layer provides good bottom coverage in high aspect-ratio holes, but its sidewall coverage can be small such that that the resulting thin films can be rough or discontinuous. A thin CVD deposited seed can also be too rough. A thicker CVD seed layer, or CVD copper over IMP copper, may require an excessively thick seed layer to achieve the required continuity. Also, the electroplating electrode primarily operates on the entire hole sidewalls so that high sidewall coverage is desired. Long throw provides adequate sidewall coverage, but the bottom coverage may not be sufficient.